Melihat peluang dari 'Sarang Semut'...;)

Tanaman ini berasal dari Papua, tepatnya sebelah barat hutan di daerah Wamena. Berbentuk unik layaknya kayu tua dengan tinggi tak lebih dari 1 meter, dan batang yang banyak mirip tangan seekor gurita. Bagian bonggolnya terlihat menggelembung seukuran bola volley sedangkan bagian dalam berwujud rongga-rongga serbuk berwarna cokelat kehitaman seperti bagian kayu lapuk yang menjadi tempat tinggal hewan semut atau rayap sehingga penduduk asli sekitar Wamena macam Suku Bogondini dan Suku Tolikara menamainya tumbuhan Sarang Semut.
Secara genetis, Sarang Semut termasuk dalam spesies Myrmecodia Pendans yang sanggup hidup lama di atas tanah hutan minim air dan perlakuan khusus. Permukaan batangnya dipenuhi oleh duri tajam berfungsi melindungi diri dari binatang herbivora. Jika ingin membudidayakan tanaman ini, mudah saja. Kondisikan tempat penanaman sebagaimana habitat asli Sarang Semut. Demikian keterangan Winston Moeni, pemilik Winston Nursery Sukoharjo, Jateng yang beberapa tahun belakangan mulai mengembangkan Sarang Semut di Jawa.
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“Di samping bisa dijadikan tanaman hias karena kekhasan bentuknya, Sarang Semut juga bisa dijadikan sebagai tanaman obat sebagaimana yang dilakukan masyarakat Suku Bogondini dan Suku Tolikara sejak ratusan tahun silam. Sering mereka mencampur sarang semut dengan bubur sagu atau makanan pokok lainnya untuk menyembuhkan rematik, asam urat dan pegal-pegal. Ketika hewan ternak mereka sakit, mereka mengobatinya juga dengan rebusan Sarang Semut”.
Hanya itukah khasiat Sarang Semut? Ternyata tidak. Berbagai penelitian menunjukkan bahwa kandungan zat-zat yang terdapat pada Sarang Semut berguna untuk meningkatkan imunitas atau kekebalan tubuh serta mampu memberikan energi bagi manusia. Kandungan zat-zat itu meliputi beberapa senyawa aktif antioksidan (Tokoferol dan Fenolik), Kalsium (Ce), Natrium (Na), Kalium (K), Seng (Zn), Besi (Fe), Fosfor (P) dan Magnesium (Mg), dan dimungkinkan ada kandungan-kandungan lainnya yang sampai sekarang masih terus dibuktikan secara klinis.
Jadi Sarang Semut mampu menanggulangi multi ragam penyakit dari yang ringan sampai penyakit berat dan kronis. Adapun manual pembuatan obat Sarang Semut cukup simpel yaitu dengan mengambil lima sendok serbuk bagian dalam tanaman ini kemudian dilarutkan, diaduk-aduk ke dalam segelas air putih atau sekitar 200 cc. setelah itu diminum sedikitnya 3 kali sehari

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AYAM KLONING KEBAL FLU BURUNG

Wabah flu burung pernah menyerang di Spanyol dengan korban 40-50 jiwa pada tahun 1918, di Asia 1 juta jiwa tahun 1957, di Hong Kong juga 1 juta jiwa. Serangan flu burung hingga saat ini mencapai ratusan saja.
Sebuah tim ahli yang dipimpin oleh Dr. Laurence Tiley melalui Multi-institute British Research Project, bekerjasama dengan Dr. Helen Sang dari Roslin Institute Edinburg, Scotland melakukan eksplorasi potensi penciptaan ternak unggas yang memiliki sifat resisten terhadap virus flu burung dengan menggunakan teknologi modifikasi genetik.
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Strategi untuk memperoleh ayam kebal flu burung dilakukan dengan mempertimbangkan mekanisme kekebalan alamiah dan memadukan dengan metode pembaharuan yang inkonvensional. Pekerjaan ini bertujuan memproduksi ayam yang memiliki kekebalan terhadap semua strain (galur) virus flu burung baik yang bersifat HPAI (Hight Pathogenic AI) maupun LPAI (Low Pathogenic AI).
Itulah kesulitan dan tantangan proyek tersebut. Seperti kita ketahui strain virus flu ditentukan oleh Haemaglutinin dengan kode H dan Neuraminidase dengan kode N yang terdapat pada selubung protein luar. Hingga saat ini terdapat H 1 sampai 15 dan N 1 sampai 9. Profesor Rangga Tabu dari UGM menambahkan hingga H 16. Virus yang mewabah saat ini adalah H5N1 yang bersifat HPAI.
Apabila ayam kebal flu burung tersebut telah diproduksi secara massal dan diperdagangkan secara komersial, maka terjadi efisiensi dalam memproduksi vaksin. Artinya tidak diperlukan lagi sama sekali vaksin flu burung yang jika kita hitung kombinasi strainnya dapat mencapai 135 jenis. Itu secara teknis maupun ekonomis.
Sebenarnya terdapat beberapa alasan mengapa penelitian itu dilakukan. Pertama, flu burung telah menjadi persoalan global saat ini. Seluruh dunia berada pada posisi pertengahan wabah terbesar internasional yang pernah tercatat dari jenis virus HPAI. Ratusan juta ternak telah dibantai dalam rangka pengendalian penyakit. Hal ini telah menyebabkan penderitaan tersendiri bagi para peternak.
Kedua, adanya kekhawatiran kemampuan virus untuk menular dan berkembang antar spsies yakni kemungkinan besar terjadinya penularan dari hewan ke manusia. Lebih lanjut dari manusia ke manusia. Ayam merupakan jembatan spesies yang potensial bagi penularan virus barbahaya ini dan dapat memfasilitasi penularan dari unggas liar ke manusia.

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JELLY JAMBU BIJI MERAH DAN JELLY DURIAN MINUMAN SEHAT TANPA PENGAWET

Durian dan jambu biji merah merupakan komoditas yang banyak dijumpai di beberapa daerah di Sumatera Barat. Durian banyak dikembangkan pada hampir semua Kabupaten dan Kota di Sumatera Barat, mencakup luasan 1.668,75 hektar yang mampu memproduksi sekitar 36.801,90 ton. Sementara itu, produksi jambu biji merah sering dijumpai dalam jumlah yang cukup banyak di Kota Padang.
Pengolahan berbagai komoditas tanaman buah-buahan menjadi berbagai produk olahan, merupakan salah satu cara yang umum dilakukan untuk mengantisipasi limpahan produksi yang tidak laku terjual atau afkiran yang masih baik, yang seringkali terjadi pada saat musim panen raya. Pengolahan produk pertanian salah satunya juga bertujuan untuk meningkatkan nilai tambah maupun nilai jual. Salah satu bentuk olahan yang saat ini dapat dikembangkan adalah pembuatan minuman jelly.

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Minuman jelly dibuat dengan cara mengekstrak buah dan menambahkan tepung jelly sebagai pengental, gula tebu sebagai pemanis, garam dan asam sitrat. Jelly buah-buahan mengandung nutrisi yang berguna bagi kesehatan. Jelly ini dapat dikatakan sebagai minuman fungsional, yaitu minuman yang berkhasiat menjaga kesehatan.
BPTP Sumatera Barat menangkap peluang pengembangan usaha tersebut dan telah mengkaji teknologi inovasi pengolahan jambu biji merah dan durian menjadi minuman jelly. Teknologi pembuatannya tidaklah sulit, hanya dengan peralatan sederhana dan biaya murah. Produksinya dapat dilakukan dalam skala rumah tangga, baik secara perorangan ataupun berkelompok. Sesuai dengan tuntutan pasar saat ini, maka produk jelly yang dihasilkan tanpa menggunakan bahan pengawet dan pewarna buatan, menarik untuk disuguhkan.

Pembuatan Jelly Jambu Biji Merah dan Jelly Durian

Bahan-bahan yang diperlukan untuk pembuatan jelly jambu biji merah adalah buah jambu biji merah, tepung jelly, gula pasir, garam dan asam sitrat. Peralatan yang digunakan adalah baskom, pisau, blender, panci, kompor, cup plastik, dan lemari pendingin untuk mempercepat proses pengentalan.
Prosedur pembuatan jelly jambu biji merah diawali dengan mencuci, mengupas dan menghancurkannya dengan blender sampai menjadi bubur. Bubur dimasukkan ke dalam panci besar, lalu ditambahkan air sebanyak 2,5 liter untuk setiap 0,5 kg jambu biji merah, kemudian disaring. Hasil saringan atau filtrat ditambah gula pasir, tepung jelly, garam dan asam sitrat. Penambahan bahan-bahan tersebut disesuaikan dengan selera. Selanjutnya, campuran filtrat jambu biji merah tersebut dipanaskan sampai mendidih sambil terus diaduk-aduk.
Terakhir, jelly jambu biji merah dikemas dalam cup plastik dan didinginkan dalam lemari pendingin. Setelah mengental, jelly jambu biji merah dapat langsung diminum atau dipasarkan dan tahan disimpan dalam lemari pendingin selama 4 hari, jika disimpan di ruang terbuka hanya tahan 2 hari. Agar tahan lebih lama lagi, sebelum dimasukkan ke dalam lemari pendingin, terlebih dahulu dipasteurisasi dalam air panas dengan suhu 80oC selama 5 menit.

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Lalat Buah ( Bactrocera sp.)

Salah satu hama penting tanaman hortikultura yang saat ini menjadi isu nasional juga menjadi faktor pembatas perdagangan (trade barrier). Adalah lalat buah. Komoditas ekspor suatu negara dapat ditolak oleh negara lain dengan alasan terdapatnya lalat buah.
Jenis Lalat Buah di IndonesiaLalat buah yang banyak terdapat di Indonesia adalah dari genus Bactrocera dan salah satu jenis yang sangat penting dan ganas adalah Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel complex. B. dorsalis Hendel complex merupakan lalat buah yang bersifat polifag, mempunyai sekitar 26 jenis inang seperti belimbing, jambu biji, tomat, cabai merah, melon, apel, nangka kuning, mangga, dan jambu air.
Selain merusak buah-buahan seperti jatuhnya buah muda yang terserang, serangan hama ini juga menyebabkan buah menjadi busuk dan dihinggapi belatung lalat buah juga merupakan vektor bakteri Escherichia coli, penyebab penyakit pada manusia sehingga dapat dijadikan alasan untuk menghambat perdagangan. Untuk mencegah masuknya spesies baru lalat buah ke Indonesia, pemerintah mengeluarkan Permentan No.37/ KPTS/HK. 060/172006 yang menetapkan hanya tujuh pintu masuk buah segar ke Indonesia, yaitu Batu Ampar, Batam; Ngurah Rai, Bali; Makassar; Belawan, Medan; Tj. Priok, Jakarta; Tj. Perak, Surabaya, dan Cengkareng, Jakarta.
Intensitas serangan lalat buah di beberapa daerah di Jawa Timur dan Bali menunjukkan variasi yang cukup besar, berkisar antara 6,4-70% Intensitas serangan lalat buah pada mangga berkisar antara 14,8-23%. Namun tidak jarang kerusakan yang diakibatkan lalat buah, khususnya pada belimbing dan jambu biji, dapat mencapai 100% .
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Gejala

Pada buah yang terserang biasanya terdapat lubang kecil di bagian tengah kulitnya. Serangan lalat buah ditemukan terutama pada buah yang hampir masak. Gejala awal ditandai dengan noda/titik bekas tusukan ovipositor (alat peletak telur) lalat betina saat meletakkan telur ke dalam buah. Selanjutnya karena aktivitas hama di dalam buah, noda tersebut berkembang menjadi meluas. Larva makan daging buah sehingga menyebabkan buah busuk sebelum masak. Apabila dibelah pada daging buah terdapat belatung-belatung kecil dengan ukuran antara 4-10 mm yang biasanya meloncat apabila tersentuh. Kerugian yang disebabkan oleh hama ini mencapai 30-60%. Kerusakan yang ditimbulkan oleh larvanya akan menyebabkan gugurnya buah sebelum mencapai kematangan yang diinginkan.
Bioekologi

Dalam siklus hidupnya lalat buah mempunyai 4 stadium hidup yaitu telur, larva, pupa dan dewasa. Lalat buah betina memasukkan telur kedalam kulit buah jeruk atau di dalam luka atau cacat buah secara berkelompok. Lalat buah betina bertelur sekitar 15 butir. Telur berwarna putih transparan berbentuk bulat panjang dengan salah satu ujungnya runcing. Larva lalat buah hidup dan berkembang di dalam daging buah selama 6-9 hari. Larva mengorek daging buah sambil mengeluarkan enzim perusak atau pencerna yang berfungsi melunakkan daging buah sehingga mudah diisap dan dicerna. Enzim tersebut diketahui yang mempercepat pembusukan, selain bakteri pembusuk yang mempercepat aktivitas pembusukan buah. Jika aktivitas pembusukan sudah mencapai tahap lanjut, buah akan jatuh ke tanah, bersamaan dengan masaknya buah, larva lalat buah siap memasuki tahap pupa, larva masuk dalam tanah dan menjadi pupa. Pupa berwarna kecoklatan berbentuk oval dengan panjang 5 mm. Lalat dewasa berwarna merah kecoklatan, dada berwarna gelap dengan 2 garis kuning membujur dan pada bagian perut terdapat garis melintang. Lalat betina ujung perutnya lebih runcing dibandingkan lalat jantan. Siklus hidup dari telur menjadi dewasa berlangsung selama 16 hari. Fase kritis tanaman yaitu pada saat tanaman mulai berbuah terutama pada saat buah menjelang masak. Lalat buah yang mempunyai ukuran tubuh relatif kecil dan siklus hidup yang pendek peka terhadap lingkungan yang kurang baik. Suhu optimal untuk perkembangan lalat buah ? 26?C, sedangkan kelembaban relatif sekitar 70%. Kelembaban tanah sangat berpengaruh terhadap perkembangan pupa. Kelembaban tanah yang sesuai untuk stadia pupa adalah 0-9%. Cahaya mempunyai pengaruh langsung terhadap perkembangan lalat buah. Lalat buah betina akan meletakkan telur lebih cepat dalam kondisi yang terang, sebaliknya pupa lalat buah tidak akan menetas apabila terkena sinar. Lalat buah paling banyak menyerang pada pamelo (Citrus grandis) dan sedikit yang menyerang jeruk manis (C. sinensis) maupun keprok (C. reticulata). Pada pamelo diidentifikasi sebagai B. carambolae dan B. papayae. Pada pamelo serangan lalat buah kadang-kadang bersamaan dengan serangan penggerek buah Citripestis sagitiferella, sehingga agak sulit membedakan serangga tersebut. Hama ini banyak ditemukan di sentra-sentra produksi jeruk seperti di Sumatera Utara dan Jawa Timur.

Pengendalian Lalat Buah

Di Hawaii, pengendalian lalat buah memadukan beberapa teknik pengendalian, di antaranya dengan atraktan dalam perangkap, yang dapat menekan penggunaan pestisida kimia sintetis hingga 75-95%. Beberapa teknik pengendalian telah banyak dikembangkan, di antaranya penggunaan GA (Gibberellic Acid), yaitu membuat penampilan buah-buahan tidak matang, sehingga lalat buah enggan meletakkan telur pada buah. Selain itu, pelepasan serangga mandul, khususnya jantan mandul, telah dikembangkan pula dan memberikan hasil yang memuaskan. Teknik lain yang sudah berhasil dikembangkan di Australia adalah foliage baiting (penggunaan umpan beracun), coversprayng (penyemprotan tanaman beserta buahnya dengan insektisida), dan trapping (perangkap dengan atraktan di dalamnya), selain menjaga sanitasi kebun (Broghton etal., 2004).
Pengendalian dengan Atraktan (Zat Pemikat)

Penggunaan atraktan metil eugenol merupakan cara pengendalian yang ramah lingkungan dan telah terbukti efektif. Atraktan dapat digunakan untuk mengendalikan hama lalat buah dalam tiga cara, yaitu: (a) mendeteksi atau memonitor populasi lalat buah, (b) menarik lalat buah untuk kemudian dibunuh dengan perangkap, dan (c) mengacaukan lalat buah dalam perkawinan, berkumpul, dan cara makan.

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membuat bioethanol dari singkong....

Singkong diolah menjadi bioetanol, pengganti premium. Singkong salah satu sumber pati. Pati senyawa karbohidrat kompleks. Sebelum difermentasi, pati diubah menjadi glukosa, karbohidrat yang lebih sederhana. Untuk mengurai pati, perlu bantuan cendawan Aspergillus sp. Cendawan itu menghasilkan enzim alfamilase dan gliikoamilase yang berperan mengurai pati menjadi glukosa alias gula sederhana. Setelah menjadi gula, bam difermentasi menjadi etanol.
Lalu bagaimana cara mengolah singkong menjadi etanol? Berikut Langkah-langkah pembuatan bioetanol berbahan singkong. Pengolahan berikut ini berkapasitas 10 liter per hari.

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1. Kupas 125 kg singkong segar, semua jenis dapal dimanfaatkan. Bersihkan dan cacah berukuran kecil-kecil.
2. Keringkan singkong yang telah dicacah hingga kadar air maksimal 16%. Persis singkong yang dikeringkan menjadi gaplek. Tujuannya agar lebih awet sehingga produsen dapat menyimpan sebagai cadangan bahan baku
3. Masukkan 25 kg gaplek ke dalam tangki stainless si eel berkapasitas 120 liter, lalu tambahkan air hingga mencapai volume 100 liter. Panaskan gaplek hingga 100"C selama 0,5 jam. Aduk rebusan gaplek sampai menjadi bubur dan mengental.
4. Dinginkan bubur gaplek, lalu masukkan ke dalam langki sakarifikasi. Sakarifikasi adalah proses penguraian pati menjadi glukosa. Setelah dingin, masukkan cendawan Aspergillus yang akan memecah pati menjadi glukosa. Untuk menguraikan 100 liter bubur pati singkong. perlu 10 liter larutan cendawan Aspergillus atau 10% dari total bubur. Konsentrasi cendawan mencapai 100-juta sel/ml. Sebclum digunakan, Aspergilhis dikuhurkan pada bubur gaplek yang telah dimasak tadi agar adaptif dengan sifat kimia bubur gaplek. Cendawan berkembang biak dan bekerja mengurai pati
5. Dua jam kemudian, bubur gaplek berubah menjadi 2 lapisan: air dan endapan gula. Aduk kembali pati yang sudah menjadi gula itu, lalu masukkan ke dalam tangki fermentasi. Namun, sebelum difermentasi pastikan kadar gula larutan pati maksimal 17—18%. Itu adalah kadar gula maksimum yang disukai bakteri Saccharomyces unluk hidup dan bekerja mengurai gula menjadi alkohol. Jika kadar gula lebth tinggi, tambahkan air hingga mencapai kadar yang diinginkan. Bila sebaliknya, tambahkan larutan gula pasir agar mencapai kadar gula maksimum.
6 Tutup rapat tangki fermentasi untuk mencegah kontaminasi dan Saccharomyces bekerja mengurai glukosa lebih optimal. Fermentasi berlangsung anaerob alias tidak membutuhkan oksigen. Agar fermentasi optimal, jaga suhu pada 28—32"C dan pH 4,5—5,5.
7. Setelah 2—3 hari, larutan pati berubah menjadi 3 lapisan. Lapisan terbawah berupa endapan protein. Di atasnya air, dan etanol. Hasil fermentasi itu disebut bir yang mengandung 6—12% etanol
8.Sedot larutan etanol dengan selang plastik melalui kertas saring berukuran 1 mikron untuk menyaring endapan protein.
9. Meski telah disaring, etanol masih bercampurair. Untuk memisahkannya, lakukan destilasi atau penyulingan. Panaskan campuran air dan etanol pada suhu 78"C atau setara titik didih etanol. Pada suhu itu etanol lebih dulu menguap ketimbang air yang bertitik didih 100°C. Uap etanol dialirkan melalui pipa yang terendam air sehingga terkondensasi dan kembali menjadi etanol cair.
10. Hasil penyulingan berupa 95% etanol dan tidak dapat larut dalam bensin. Agar larul, diperlukan etanol berkadar 99% atau disebut etanol kering. Oleh sebab itu, perlu destilasi absorbent. Etanol 95% itu dipanaskan 100"C. Pada suhu ilu, etanol dan air menguap. Uap keduanya kemudian dilewatkan ke dalam pipa yang dindingnya berlapis zeolit atau pati. Zeolit akan menyerap kadar air tersisa hingga diperoleh etanol 99% yang siap dieampur denganbensin. Sepuluh liter etanol 99%, membutuhkan 120— 130 lifer bir yang dihasilkan dari 25 kg gaplek

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Teknik Pembuatan Nata De Coco neh......:)

Buah kelapa merupakan bagian paling penting dari tanaman kelapa karena mempunyai nilai ekonomis dan gizi yang tinggi. Air kelapa salah satu bagian buah kelapa yang mengandung sejumlah zat gizi yaitu protein, lemak, gula, sejumlah vitamin, asam amino, clan hormon pertumbuhan.
Air kelapa dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai media untuk produksi nata de coco. Nata de coco merupakan hasil fermentasi air kelapa dengan bantuan mikroba Acetobacter xylinum, yang berbentuk padat, berwarna putih, transparan, berasa manis clan bertekstur kenyal. Selain banyak diminati karena rasanya yang enak dan kaya serat, pembuatan nata de coco pun tidak sulit dan biaya yang dibutuhkan tidak banyak sehingga dapat sebagai alternatif usaha yang dapat memberikan keuntungan.
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TAHAPAN PEMBUATANNATA DE COCO

1. Persiapan media starter
Starter atau biakan mikroba merupakan suatu bahan yang paling penting dalam pembentukan nata. Sebagai starter, digunakan biakan murni dari Acetobacter xylinum. Bakteri ini dapat dihasilkan dari ampas nenas yang telah diinkubasi ( diperam) selama 2-3 minggu. Starter yang digunakan dalam pembuatan nata sebanyak 170 ml.
2. Penyaringan dan pendidihan
Untuk menghilangkan kotoran yang bercampur pada air kelapa dilakukan penyaringan air kelapa dengan menggunakan kain saring. Kemudian campurkan gula pasir ( 100 g/l air kelapa ), dengan air kelapa lalu didihkan dan dinginkan.
4. Inokulasi (Pencampuran dengan starter)
Setelah dingin, pH -nya diatur dengan menambahkan asam asetat atau asam cuka sekitar 20 ml hingga diperoleh kisaran keasaman (pH) 3-4. Kemudian diinokulasi dengan menambahkan starter (Acetobacter xylinum) 170 ml.
5. Fermentasi (Pemeraman)
Masukkan campuran tersebut ke dalam wadah fermentasi ( baskom berukuran 34 x 25 x 5 cm ). Wadah ditutup dengan kain saring dan diletakkan ditempat yang bersih dan aman. Dilakukan pemeraman selama 8-14 hari hingga lapisan mencapai ketebalan kurang lebih 1.5 cm.
6. Pemanenan
Setelah pemeraman selesai dengan terbentuk lapisan nata, lapisan nata diangkat secara hati-hati dengan menggunakan garpu atau penjepit yang bersih supaya cairan dibawah lapisan tidak tercemar. Cairan dibawah nata dapat digunakan sebagai cairan bibit pada pengolahan berikutnya.
Buang selaput yang menempel pada bagian bawah nata, dicuci lalu dipotong dalam bentuk kubus dan dicuci. Tuang dan rendam potongan nata de coco dalam ember plastik selama 2 - 3 hari dan setiap hari air rendaman diganti. Sesudah itu direbus selama 10 menit. Tujuan perendaman dan perebusan untuk menghilangkan rasa asam.7. Pembuatan sirup nata Pembuatan sirup nata dengan perbandingan untuk 3 kg produk nata potongan diperlukan 2 kg gula dan 4,5 liter air. Gula dituangkan ke dalam air, panaskan sampai larut, lalu disaring. Selanjutnya nata dicampur dalam larutan sirup gula, bila perlu tambahkan essence kemudian biarkan satu malam agar terjadi penyerapan gula ke dalam potonganpotongan nata, lalu didihkan selama 15 menit.
8. Pengemasan
Selanjutnya nata dikemas dalam kantong plastik atau botol selai dengan perbandingan antara padatan dan cairan 3:1, botol ditutup rapat, kemudian direbus dalam air mendidih selama 30 menit. Angkat dan dinginkan di udara dengan tutup terletak pada bagian bawah, selanjutnya botol diberi label dan siap untuk dipasarkan.

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Viruses Can Turn Harmless E. Coli Dangerous....^_^

Viruses attacking E. coli, (electron microscopy picture). (Credit: Image courtesy of Norwegian School of Veterinary Science)

Bacteriophage Structure© Gary E. Kaiser

For her doctorate, Camilla Sekse studied how viral DNA can be transmitted from pathogenic to non-pathogenic E. coli. Viruses that infect bacteria in this way are called bacteriophages. Her findings reveal that such transmission of bateriophage between bacteria can occur, and that in the case of E. coli it can transform a harmless bacterium into one capable of causing disease in man.

Escherichia coli is a complex group of gut bacteria that are found in all warm-blooded animals and are for the most part harmless. A few, however, cause disease in man and animals. The E. coli bacteria that produce a poison called Shiga toxin can produce a range of effects in man. One common effect is bloody diarrhoea followed by complications such as kidney failure (haemolytic uraemic syndrome). The bacteria may be spread through contaminated food or water, or from contact with animals.

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A combination of qualities necessary to produce disease
A sequence of favourable circumstances needs to exist before E. coli can produce disease. The most important of these is the ability to produce Shiga toxin. The gene that codes for Shiga toxin is not innate, but is contained within bacteriophages. In other words, the bacterium needs first to be infected by a bacteriophage coding for Shiga toxin in order to produce the toxin itself.
In her work, Camilla Sekse studied E. coli O103:H25 bacteria isolated both from foodstuffs and patients from the E. coli outbreak of 2006. She and her colleagues discovered special features of these E. coli bacteria that separate them from ordinary, benign forms. This discovery lead to it being easier to demonstrate E. coli O103:H25 in suspect food products.

Dangerous bacteria in our environment
It seems that E. coli O103:H25 has existed in Norway for some time, since this bacterium was also found to be a cause of the kidney failure outbreaks both in 2003 and 2005. Studies of the entire genome of this bacterium have shown that it more closely resembles the enteropathogenic E. coli (bacteria that cause diarrhoea) than the more common, Shiga toxin-producing E. coli, namely E. coli O157:H7.
Escherichia coli bacteria that are not disease-causing can absorb and lose bacteriophages coding for Shiga toxin, and can be important in the spread of these bacteriophages in the environment, even though they don't themselves cause disease. It appears that some E. coli bacteria can both more easily absorb and lose bacteriophages that contain the gene for Shiga toxin, and this may well be the case for E. coli O103:H25.
The work was primarily carried out at the Department Food Safety & Environment of the Norwegian School of Veterinary Science. Parts of the study were done in close collaboration with scientists of the University of Barcelona and at the Technical University of Denmark in Copenhagen, and in co-operation with the Norwegian Institute of Public Health in Oslo. The project was financed by the Research Council of Norway and the Norwegian School of Veterinary Science.

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Minimizing The Spread Of Deadly Hendra Virus

This artificially coloured electron micrograph of Hendra virus is from the first identified case in Brisbane in 1994. (Credit: CSIRO)

CSIRO Livestock Industries' scientists working at the Australian Animal Health Laboratory (AAHL), in Geelong Victoria, have made a major breakthrough in better understanding how Hendra spreads from infected horses to other horses and humans.

Funded by the Australian Biosecurity CRC for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Dr Deb Middleton and her team at AAHL have defined the period following the first signs of disease when horses are most likely to shed Hendra virus and therefore infect other horses and people.
First identified in Brisbane in 1994, Hendra virus, which spreads from flying foxes, has regularly infected horses in Australia. Of the 11 equine outbreaks, four have led to human infection, with three of the six known human cases being fatal, the most recent of these in August 2008.
Dr Deb Middleton and her team at AAHL have defined the period following the first signs of disease when horses are most likely to shed Hendra virus and therefore infect other horses and people.

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Dr Middleton says limited information in the past, on when the disease can transmit, has made it difficult to manage infected horses to stop Hendra spreading further to people and other susceptible horses.
"Our research has also determined the best biological samples required for rapid diagnosis of the virus in horses and identified the important relationship between the period of highest transmission risk and the time with which the disease can easily be detected," Dr Middleton says.
As a result of these findings, veterinarians and horse owners are likely to consider the possibility of Hendra virus infection sooner when dealing with sick horses. This will mean appropriate management strategies can be put in place immediately, reducing the risk of spread while testing is being carried out.
"Unlike in horse flu, where apparently healthy horses can transmit the virus, horses in the early stages of Hendra infection generally appear to be at lower risk compared to animals with more advanced signs of illness."
These research findings will be used to update the guidelines that horse owners and vets use to handle potential Hendra virus infections.
Dr Middleton says her research also indicates there is an opportunity to diagnose Hendra virus in horses early, prior to advanced clinical signs and the highest risk of transmission.
"Developing a sensitive and specific stall-side test, which vets could use out in the field to diagnose the disease, has become even more important. However there are still key challenges to developing this type of advanced technology."
Although it is still not known how Hendra spreads from flying foxes to horses, Dr Middleton says the key to preventing human exposure and the exposure of additional horses is first understanding the disease in horses and secondly controlling the viral spread from diseased horses.
All research for the project was undertaken within AAHL's high-biocontainment facility.

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Climate Change Makes Migrations Longer For Birds

A team of scientists, led by Durham University, have published findings that show that the marathon flights undertaken by birds to spring breeding grounds in Europe, are going to turn into even more epic journeys; the length of some migrations could increase by as much as 250 miles.

The research team looked at the current migration patterns of European Sylvia warblers, a group of birds that are common residents and visitors to Europe, like the Blackcap. Published in the Journal of Biogeography, the scientists demonstrate evidence of potential breeding ranges shifting northwards in the future, while the wintering ranges remain stationary for many species.

The team used simulation models to see how climate change might affect warblers and found that climate change will have significant impacts, particularly on the projected migration distances for some of the long distance fliers.

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Some 500 million birds are estimated to migrate to Europe and Asia from Africa; birds as small as 9 grams undertake the annual migration of 1,000s of miles between the two continents to find food and suitable climate. Birds have to put on a large amount of weight as fat before migrating long distances; they even shrink the size of some of their internal organs to become more fuel efficient. Some species must double their weight to have enough energy to undertake the huge journeys. The first of these migrants are now starting to reappear once again in the UK countryside.
Team leader, Dr Stephen Willis of Durham University, said birds face an increasing fight to survive: “Most warblers come here in spring and summer time to take advantage of the surplus of insects, and leave for warmer climes in the autumn. From 2071 to 2100, nine out of the 17 species we looked at are projected to face longer migrations, particularly birds that cross the Sahara desert.
“Our findings show that marathon migrations for some birds are set to become even longer journeys. This is bad news for birds like the Whitethroat, a common farmland bird. The added distance is a considerable threat.”
Co-author of the research paper, Professor Rhys Green of Cambridge University and RSPB said: "These tiny birds make amazing journeys, pushing themselves to the limits of endurance. Anything that makes those journeys longer or more dependent on rare and vulnerable pit-stop habitats used for refuelling on migration could mean the difference between life and death.”
In terms of EU policy, the predicted effects of climate change on birds indicate a need for an appraisal of the designation of protected areas for migrant species, including key areas used for stopovers on long-distance migrations. The protection of bird species within the European Union is covered by legal directives that require member states to designate and protect Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) for habitats and Special Protection Areas (SPAs), the latter specifically designated to protect birds.
The research predicts that some species that fly long distances (on average 2,800 miles to 3,700 miles), are likely to face significantly longer flights, up to 250 miles longer, and shorter distance fliers may face journeys of up to 125 miles longer. Some birds cross the Mediterranean Sea and the Sahara in one go, whilst others pause to refuel in North Africa before crossing the desert. Night flying when the temperature is cooler is a technique that is also used by some of the long distance fliers.
Northern parts of the species’ ranges are expected to become of increasing importance and in some cases, species of northern populations are already thought to be exhibiting increases. Some birds might also be able to find new short distance routes. One common migrant, the Blackcap has already started spending winters in the UK.
Professor Rhys Green said: "These findings come as many people in the UK are enjoying the sights and sounds of their favourite birds returning after a winter in Africa. The challenges are large if we are to continue to see and hear these harbingers of the spring in anything like the numbers we are used to witnessing.
"We have already seen evidence that birds' ranges are moving north to track suitable climate conditions in the way predicted by past modelling. This latest research suggests they will face an increase in the length of an already arduous journey.”
Assuming increases in the fuel requirements for longer migrations can be physiologically accommodated by birds, they are likely to require more time for feeding prior to migration and/or additional stopovers to feed.
Nathalie Doswald, a student on the Durham team, said: “The projected distances for migrations would require long and short distance fliers to increase their fuel loads by 9 per cent and 5 per cent of lean body mass respectively. The predicted future temperature changes and the associated changes in habitat could have serious consequences for many species.”
Dr Willis said: “Some species may be able to adapt and change, for example by adopting shorter migration routes, if they can find enough food at the right time. Bird migrations are incredible feats of stamina and endurance but, as temperatures rise and habitats change, birds will face their biggest challenge since the Pleistocene era.”
Average migration distances – now and (in brackets) predicted for the future.
The four species with the largest predicted migration increases:
Subalpine Warbler – 1,615 miles (1,895-2,081miles) - Southern Europe to sub-Saharan Africa
Orphean Warbler – 1,679 miles (1,926-2,019 miles) - Southern Europe to sub-Saharan Africa
Barred Warbler – 2982 miles (3480-3,573 miles) - Central Europe to sub-Saharan Africa
Whitethroat – 3,417 miles (3,541-3,759 miles) – All Europe to sub-Saharan Africa
This research was funded by the Natural Environment Research Council and the RSPB.

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All Octopuses Are Venomous: Could Lead To Drug Discovery

Once thought to be only the realm of the blue-ringed octopus, researchers have now shown that all octopuses and cuttlefish, and some squid are venomous. The work indicates that they all share a common, ancient venomous ancestor and highlights new avenues for drug discovery.

Conducted by scientists from the University of Melbourne, University of Brussels and Museum Victoria, the study was published in the Journal of Molecular Evolution.
Dr Bryan Fry from the Department of Biochemistry at the Bio21 Institute, University of Melbourne said that while the blue-ringed octopus species remain the only group that aredangerous to humans, the other species have been quietly using their venom for predation, such as paralysing a clam into opening its shell.

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“Venoms are toxic proteins with specialised functions such as paralysing the nervous system” he said.
“We hope that by understanding the structure and mode of action of venom proteins we can benefit drug design for a range of conditions such as pain management, allergies and cancer.”
While many creatures have been examined as a basis for drug development, cephalopods (octopuses, cuttlefish and squid) remain an untapped resource and their venom may represent a unique class of compounds.
Dr Fry obtained tissue samples from cephalopods ranging from Hong Kong, the Coral Sea, the Great Barrier Reef and Antarctica.
The team then analysed the genes for venom production from the different species and found that a venomous ancestor produced one set of venom proteins, but over time additional proteins were added to the chemical arsenal.
The origin of these genes also sheds light on the fundamentals of evolution, presenting a prime example of convergent evolution where species independently develop similar traits.
The team will now work on understanding why very different types of venomous animals seem to consistently settle on the similar venom protein composition, and which physical or chemical properties make them predisposed to be useful as toxin.
“Not only will this allow us to understand how these animals have assembled their arsenals, but it will also allow us to better exploit them in the development of new drugs from venoms,” said Dr Fry.
“It does not seem a coincidence that some of the same protein types have been recruited for use as toxins across the animal kingdom.”

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New Orangutan Population Found in Indonesia

Conservationists discovered a new population of orangutans in a remote, mountainous corner of Indonesia — perhaps as many as 2,000 — giving a rare boost to one of the world's most endangered great apes.
A team surveying forests nestled between jagged, limestone cliffs on the eastern edge of Borneo island counted 219 orangutan nests, indicating a "substantial" number of the animals, said Erik Meijaard, a senior ecologist at the U.S.-based The Nature Conservancy.
"We can't say for sure how many," he said, but even the most cautious estimate would indicate "several hundred at least, maybe 1,000 or 2,000 even."

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The team also encountered an adult male, which angrily threw branches as they tried to take photos, and a mother and child.
There are an estimated 50,000 to 60,000 orangutans left in the wild, 90 percent of them in Indonesia and the rest in neighboring Malaysia.
The countries are the world's top producers of palm oil, used in food, cosmetics and to meet growing demands for "clean-burning" fuels in the U.S. and Europe. Rain forests, where the solitary animals spend almost all of their time, have been clear-cut and burned at alarming rates to make way for lucrative palm oil plantations.

The steep topography, poor soil and general inaccessibility of the rugged limestone mountains appear to have shielded the area from development, at least for now, said Meijaard. Its trees include those highly sought after for commercial timber.
Birute Mary Galdikas, a Canadian scientist who has spent nearly four decades studying orangutans in the wild, said most of the remaining populations are small and scattered, which make them especially vulnerable to extinction.
"So yes, finding a population that science did not know about is significant, especially one of this size," she said, noting that those found on the eastern part of the island represent a rare subspecies, the black Borneon orangutan, or Pongo pygmaeus morio.
The 700-square mile (2,500-square kilometer) jungle escaped the massive fires that devastated almost all of the surrounding forests in the late 1990s. The blazes were set by plantation owners and small-scale farmers and exacerbated by the El Nino droughts.
Nardiyono, who headed The Nature Conservancy's weeklong survey in December, said "it could be the density is very high because after the fires, the orangutans all flocked to one small area."
It was unusual to come face-to-face with even one of the elusive creatures in the wild and to encounter three was extraordinary, he said, adding that before this expedition, he had seen just five in as many years.
Conservationists say the most immediate next step will be working with local authorities to protect the area and others that fall outside of national parks. A previously undiscovered population of several hundred also was found recently on Sumatra island, home to around 7,000.
"That we are still finding new populations indicates that we still have a chance to save this animal," said Paul Hartman, who heads the U.S.-funded Orangutan Conservation Service Program, adding it's not all "gloom and doom."
Noviar Andayani, head of the Indonesian Primate Association and Orangutan Forum, said the new discoveries point to how much work still needs to be done to come up with accurate population assessments, considered vital to determining a species' vulnerability to extinction.
"There are many areas that still have not been surveyed," she said, adding that 18 private conservation groups have just started work on an in-depth census based on interviews with people who spend time in the forests.
They include villagers and those working on plantations or within logging concessions.
"We hope this will help fill in a few more gaps," said Andayani, adding that preliminary tests in areas where populations are known indicate that the new interview-based technique could provide a clearer picture than nest tallies.
"Right now the information and data we have about orangutans is still pretty rudimentary," she said.
Some experts say at the current rate of habitat destruction, the animals could be wiped out within the next two decades.

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Scientists Milk Animals For Malaria Vaccine

In their quest to mass-produce an effective malaria vaccine, scientists might one day replace expensive manufacturing facilities with a goat. In a study reported December 18 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences online, researchers developed mice that could secrete an experimental malaria vaccine into their milk. When the purified candidate vaccine was injected into monkeys, it protected four out of five animals from a lethal dose of the malaria parasite. If the process can be scaled up to larger animals such as goats -- and early experiments indicate it can -- livestock might prove to be inexpensive, high-yield malaria vaccine factories. “A vaccine must not only be effective, it must be cheap to manufacture if it is to be used in those countries hit hardest by malaria,” says lead author Anthony Stowers, Ph.D., a malaria researcher at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). “Using transgenic animals to achieve both ends is an exciting possibility. If it works, a herd of several goats could conceivably produce enough vaccine for all of Africa.”

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Transgenic animals are so named because they contain a gene, called a transgene, from another individual or organism. For years transgenic animals, particularly mice, have been used to help scientists understand how genes work and interact with one another. More recently, researchers have introduced genes encoding specific proteins into animals to produce large quantities of those proteins for medical use. Dr. Stowers and his colleagues investigated whether transgenic animals could produce proteins for use in malaria vaccines.
Dr. Stowers and Louis Miller, M.D., chief of NIAID’s Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases and the director of its Malaria Vaccine Development Unit, joined other investigators from NIAID and Genzyme Transgenics Corporation, Framingham, Mass., to produce two transgenic mouse strains. Each strain carried a form of the gene for a surface protein from the deadliest malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. The researchers designed the transgenes to be switched on by the cells that line the mammary glands, such that the resulting proteins would be secreted into the animals’ milk.
Both mouse strains produced large quantities of the desired vaccine protein, which was used to vaccinate monkeys against malaria. Only one of the five immunized animals contracted the disease. By comparison, six out of seven unvaccinated animals had to be treated for virulent malaria.
The high yield of the protein and its ability to stimulate protective immunity in mice offers promising evidence that the technique could also be used in goats or even cows. The researchers had anticipated future studies in goats by designing the transgenes’ on/off switch using regulatory elements from goat DNA. Preliminary experiments, which have not yet been published, suggest the procedure works well in the larger animals. That possibility offers a far more practical option for large-scale vaccine production.
Anthony S. Fauci, M.D., who as NIAID director guides an extensive research program on global infectious diseases, believes this approach is promising. “Malaria causes untold suffering in the poorest regions of the world, so we cannot restrict our focus simply to finding a vaccine that works,” he says. “Rather, we must look for innovative strategies that will bring effective vaccines to regions where economic conditions preclude the use of costly alternatives. Transgenic animals could be one way to accomplish that goal.”
The study involved many researchers from the two participating institutions. Among these, Drs. Li-How Chen and Harry Meade directed the studies conducted at Genzyme Transgenics. B. Fenton Hall, M.D., from NIAID’s Parasitology and International Programs Branch, also helped initiate the project and played an active role in its development.
NIAID is a component of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). NIAID supports basic and applied research to prevent, diagnose, and treat infectious and immune-mediated illnesses, including HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases, tuberculosis, malaria, autoimmune disorders, asthma and allergies.

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Chimps beat college students in memory test

When chimpanzees and university students went head-to-head in a short-term memory test, the chimps scored higher. The study was led by a Kyoto, Japan scientist who has studied the cognitive abilities of primates for 30 years.
In a recent study a Japanese researcher used short-term memory tests to compare the cognitive abilities between chimps and college students. The chimps won. Tetsuro Matsuzawa, director of the Primate Research Institute at Japan’s Kyoto University, has been studying chimpanzees and chimpanzee communities for 30 years.
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In his official bio at the university he compares the genomic difference between humans as comparable to the difference between horses and zebras and suggests humans are “98.77% chimpanzee.” He has long made the case that humans and chimpanzees are close genetic relatives and that they should co-exist peacefully.

To demonstrate their cognitive strengths, Matsuzawa taught three chimps, ages one through five, to recognize numbers one through nine. The test involved random flashing numbers on a touch screen computer. After a fraction of a second, the numbers were masked by white squares. The chimps were able to remember the location of up to eight of the numbers, and touch the spot where they had appeared in the correct order. But the college undergrads who volunteered for the study could only accurately recall the location of up to five numbers.

Matsuzawa opposes the use of primates in biomedical research and helped launch SAGA (Support for African/Asian Great Apes) in 1998. SAGA promotes conservation of chimpanzee, gorilla and orangutan natural habitats and supports non-invasive scientific inquiry.

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World's First Cloned Transgenic Goats Born

The world's first cloned transgenic goats have been born as part of a research program conducted by LSU Agricultural Center and Genzyme Transgenic Corp. While much of the research was done at LSU in Baton Rouge, the goats made their appearance last fall at the Genzyme farm in Massachusetts.
LSU's resident transgenic goat is Millie. Though she's a million-dollar goat, she doesn't look any different from the other goats she hangs out with. She is different, though, because her milk contains a therapeutic protein that could be extracted to make a drug for patients undergoing coronary bypass surgery. The drug works in conjunction with heparin, which prevents blood from clotting.
The protein, anti-thrombin III (AT III), is now in the third phase of human clinical trials. Pending FDA approval during the next 12 months, the product could be on the market in the next couple of years.

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"The technology used to clone the three Genzyme goats is one of the first applications of the nuclear transfer (cloning) procedure to produce transgenic goats for the pharmaceutical industry, said Richard Denniston, a researcher with the LSU Agricultural Center. An article in the May issue of Nature Biotechnology will announce the breakthrough. Researchers at Tufts University School of Veterinary Medicine also participated in the research.
LSU researchers have for the past six years carried a collaborative research program with Genzyme, which may become the first company to have a transgenic product on the market. "The FDA is being very careful because there's no precedent," Denniston said. Transgenics is the process of taking DNA from one species and implanting it into the genetic structure of another.
"Genzyme takes the gene for anti-thrombin III. The DNA is like a computer code. Once researchers identify the code, they can punch it into a DNA sequencer. Four different molecular building blocks of the DNA material are put in a vial, and a gene is built synthetically. Then you can make millions of copies of that," he explained.
The AT III gene is attached to a promoter gene, usually the gene for casein, a milk protein, and then microinjected into the male pronucleus of the newly fertilized egg. During the first cell divisions, the gene may become attached to the genetic material of the embryo. If this happens, the new gene, or transgene, will be incorporated into every cell of the developing goat embryo. The embryo is cultured and then transfered to the goat surrogate mother, and researchers wait for normal fetal development. If a female is produced, she will produce milk with the AT III protein, which can be extracted from the milk for pharmaceutical use.
"When you breed the AT III female offspring, 50 percent of her offspring will have this gene. Now you've got an animal that is very valuable. How do you produce these animals as quickly as possible? Genzyme does the molecular work. We are trying to develop technologies to reproduce these transgenic animals as quickly as possible," Denniston said.
"The idea of cloning arose in the past two years. Cloning is desirable because it would increase the efficiency rate. When you insert the AT III protein into 1,000 fertilized eggs and transfer 100 embryos, you can expect one transgenic offspring. There's a 50 percent chance of its being female," he said.
Denniston explained that there are three possible sources of genetic material for cloning. One source is the adult animal; this is how Dolly the sheep was produced. "That's what really made big news, taking a cell from an adult animal," he said. "Another source is the 16-32 cell-stage embryo, which was first done about 15 years ago. A third source is a developing fetus. In each case, the donor cell containing all the genetic material is fused with an enucleated egg (an egg that has had its genetic material removed). The resulting cloned embryo is then transferred into a recipient female that carries the clone to term."
The transgenic goat clones born from the joint LSU/Genzyme project were produced by taking fibroblast cells from a 30-day female goat fetus. These cells were grown in an incubator in media containing the gene for AT III. The growing cells then underwent a procedure called electroporation, which allows the gene to cross the cell membrane and enter the host cell's nucleus.
The resulting transgenic fibroblast cells were then fused with an enucleated egg. These cloned embryos were then transferred into a recipient goat. The result was three genetically identical transgenic female goats that can produce the valuable AT III protein in their milk. Using the cloning process in conjunction with transgenics improves the overall efficiency of producing transgenic animals, Denniston said.
Not all pregnancies are successful, but 100 percent of the births will be females with the gene for AT III," Denniston said.
The agricultural applications of this technique are widespread. For example, researchers could insert a gene for bruccilosis resistance and clone a herd of bruccilosis-resistant cattle.
"What we are doing for Genzyme is to test procedures or techniques and develop in vitro fertilization. Six years ago, nobody was doing in vitro fertilizationin goats. They asked us to, and we did," he said.
"The Massachusetts farm has more than 1,500 goats under the watchful eye of the FDA. They produce the gene in a lab in Framingham. They get a 30-day fetus, culture fiborblast cells, insert the gene for AT III into fiborblast cells, do nuclear transfer, send embryos to us, and we transfer them into recipients."
"The market for AT III is $200 million. That amount of protein can be produced by fewer than 100 goats. Even with the cost being a half to $1 millon per animal, the potential earnings from the pharmaceutical product are enormous," the LSU researcher said. Genzyme has received a patent on the protein.
It is cheaper to produce transgenic goats than cows; the goat's gestation period is shorter (5 months to a cow's 9 months), and the protein is not required in huge quantities, Denniston said.
LSU's contract with Genzyme has brought LSU approximately $850,000 in research funds, and LSU's reproductive physiology laboratory will continue working with the nuclear transfer process as a tool for pharmaceuticals, agricultural applications and propagation of endangered species.

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Medicine From Milk: Gene Therapy Could Transform Goats Into Pharmaceutical Factories

Researchers have used gene therapy to reduce the time it takes to breed goats capable of producing therapeutic proteins in their milk, such as insulin or those that fight cancer. (Credit: iStockphoto)

University of Pennsylvania researchers have used gene therapy to reduce the time it takes to breed large animals capable of producing therapeutic proteins in their milk, such as insulin or those that fight cancer. This represents a significant milestone in drug development, as current methods involve cloning, which takes more time and generally costs more.

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"Having an easier way to harness nature's power to produce large quantities of specific proteins in milk could increase the availability of drugs for people who could otherwise not afford these treatments," said Ina Dobrinski, one of the researchers on the study.
The study also is significant because it may also be a new way to eliminate diseases in future generations of animals, such as those used for livestock. Here's why: To get the goats to produce specific proteins, the researchers used radiation to kill a portion of a male goat's germ cells (the cells that produce sperm). Then they used a modified adeno-associated virus (a well studied and tolerated gene therapy vector) to insert a gene in the remaining cells. Once the new gene took hold in the germ cells, a predictable number of offspring carried the gene necessary to produce the desired protein in their milk.
The advance is immediately valuable for pharmaceutical development and biology research, but a similar approach could be used to bolster the food supply by eliminating genetic disorders in animals over several generations. It is also possible that once perfected, this technique could eliminate disease genes in humans over several generations, assuming ethical concerns can be resolved adequately.
This study is published in the February 2008 print edition of The FASEB Journal.
"For thousands of years, people have domesticated cows and goats to make milk, butter and cheese. And for thousands of years dairy products have been used as folk remedies for practically every human illness. Most have been completely ineffective." said Gerald Weissmann, MD, editor-in-chief of The FASEB Journal. "So it is reassuring that modern science would find a way to use the milk we drink to yield of drugs that actually work."

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wetz...Tidur Telentang Bisa Menyebabkan Kematian...

Teman-teman ini ada hasil penelitian terbaru dari Jepang masalah kesehatan yang dikutip dari hidupsehat.com, semoga bermanfaat bagi kita semua.

Menurut penelitian yg di lakukan oleh para Profesor ahli dari jepangselama hampir 20 tahun akhirnya mereka mengumumkan keputusan yg sangatmengejutkan kita semua tentang cara kita tidur selama ini.Ternyata tidur telentang sangat tidak dianjurkan sama sekali oleh para peneliti dari jepang.

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Berikut kutipan dari Prof. Dr. Yosihiro :
"Kalo tidur jangan sekali kali dengan posisi TELENTANG!!…Karena tidur TELENTANG itu bisa mengganggu kesehatan anda.
Beberapa survei telah dilakukan dan menghasilkan bukti yg akurat."Orang2 yg tidur TELENTANG akan mengalami gejala2 sbb:
1. Susah bernafas
2. Tersedak
3. Pencernaan terganggu
4. Yg paling fatal,dapat menyebabkan KEMATIAN!!…

Oleh karena itu, disarankan agar anda menghindari tidur TELENTANG,Sebab jangankan tidur TELEN TANG, TELEN BAUT saja susahnya setengah modar……
Jadi disarankan cukup tidur TELEN LIUR aja ya..
hehehe.. .

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Terapi Hormon Memperbaiki Seks dan Tidur Wanita Menopause

Wanita menopause yang menjalani terapi penggantian hormon dapat meningkatkan fungsi seksual, mengurangi insomnia dan mengurangi gejolak panas, menurut penelitian yang diliris hari ini.

Riset yang dilakukan terhadap 2.130 wanita menopause dari Australia, Selandia Baru dan Inggris itu menemukan bahwa penggunaan terapi hormon kombinasi oestrogen dan progestogen dapat meningkatkan beberapa indikator kualitas hidup.

Hasil ini muncul di tengah debat tentang risiko dan manfaat terapi hormon bagi wanita menopause yang juga dikaitkan dengan risiko lebih tinggi akan serangan stroke, pembekuan darah dan kanker payudara.

Sebagian besar wanita yang diteliti berusia pertengahan 60-an, yang telah menjalani menopause rata-rata 13 tahun, dan sebagian besar mereka tidak memiliki gejala perubahan hidup.

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"Hasil penelitian kami menunjukkan gejolak panas, keringat di malam hari, susah tidur dan rasa sakit lainnya sangat kecil bagi wanita yang melakukan terapi hormon di kelompok usia ini," ujar Professor Alastair MacLennan, kepala studi independen Australia.

"Seksualitas juga meningkat," tambahnya.Penelitian itu menemukan bahwa persentase wanita yang menjalani terapi hormon mengalami gejolak panas menurun dari 30 persen menjadi 9 persen selama setahun, sementara mereka yang menderita insomnia menurun dari 45 persen menjadi 35 persen.

Sementara 63 persen wanita yang menjalani terapi mengatakan mereka mengalami sakit tulang sendi dan otot di awal terapi, kemudian turun 57 persen setelah 12 bulan.

MacLennan mengatakan bahkan bagi wanita yang tidak mempunyai gejala panas dan baik-baik saja saat menopause, ada "peningkatan meskipun kecil dalam kualitas hidup dan dalam masalah tidur, seksualitas dan penyakit gabungan.

"Hasil ini dipublikasikan di situs Jurnal Kedokteran Inggris berasal dari percobaan terapi hormon terlama dan terbesar di dunia-- Women's International Study of long Duration Oestrogen after Menopause (WISDOM).MacLennan, yang menjadi kepala kebidanan dan kandungan di Universitas Adelaide mengatakan studi WISDOM akan membantu mengurangi risiko pengobatan.

"Untuk sebagian besar wanita dengan gejala menopause signifikan manfaat terapi hormon mengalahkan risikonya," ujarnya.Kepala cabang WISDOM Selandia Baru, Beverley Lawton, mengatakan kualitas dari manfaat terapi hormon kemungkinan lebih besar pada wanita dengan gejala berat mendekati menopause.
"Riset baru menyatakan bahwa terapi homon yang dilakukan mendekati menopause menghindarkan risiko serangan jantung yang terlihat ketika terapi hormon dilakukan beberapa tahun setelah menopause," ujarnya.

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Hmmm....Nasi Berbahay Bagi Kesehatan???!!!!...

Hasil research yang baru saja dilakukan oleh para ilmuwan membuktikan bahwa makan nasi ternyata tidak baik bagi kita.

Buktinya :

1. Nasi MENYEBABKAN KECANDUAN.Responden kami yang tidak makan nasi selama sehari saja akan kelaparan dan merasa sangat ingin makan nasi lagi.

2. SETENGAH dari seluruh siswaIndonesia yang makan nasi nilainya ada di bawah rata-rata kelas.

3. HAMPIR 99% KEJAHATAN terjadi dalamwaktu kurang dari 24-jam setelah pelakunya mengkonsumsi nasi.

4. Suku-suku pada zaman batu yang tidakpernah makan nasi terbukti TIDAK PERNAH mengidap tumor, Alzheimer,osteoporosis, ataupun Parkinson.

5. Dokter melarang bayi yang baru lahir untuk makan nasi. Hal ini menjadi bukti bahwa nasi punya dampak berbahaya yang sudah dibuktikan oleh ilmu kedokteran.

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6. Nasi yang kering biasa dimakan oleh ayam. Nah, sekarang anda perlu curiga dari mana flu burung berasal.

7. Jumlah pemakan nasi di Indonesiajauh lebih banyak dibandingkan dengan jumlah pemakan nasi di negara maju. Ini mungkin salah satu penyebab keterbelakangan pada negara ini.

8. Di warung-warung, biasanya KULI makan nasi dalam jumlah lebih banyak daripada kaum eksekutif. Hal ini membuktikan jika makan nasi MENURUNKAN kemampuan ekonomi seseorang.

9. Makan nasi dapat menyebabkan rasahaus alias MENYERAP air. Padahal tubuh kita sebagian besar terdiri dari air.

10. Dalam kondisi tertentu, makan nasi MENINGKATKAN resiko kematian. Misalnya makan nasi sambil menyetir mobil.

11. Pengidap DIABETES lebih dianjurkan makan kentang daripada nasi. Berarti nasi kurang baik bagi kesehatan.

12. Makan nasi menyebabkan keinginan mengkonsumsi sayur dan lauk. Misalnya nasi bandeng (nasi + bandeng goreng), nasi kucing (nasi + kucing goreng), dsb. Hal ini bisa menyebabkan obesitas.

13. Nasi mengandung ZAT BESI yangkonfigurasi elektron terluarnya 4s2. Zat lain yang elektron terluarnya 4adalah Racun ARSENIK (4p3), Batu batere TITANIUM (4s2), dan racun yangmenyerang Superman yaitu KRIPTON (4p6). Ini mengindikasikan bahwa nasi punya kesamaan dengan zat-zat berbahaya lainnya. (hahaha, jarang2 gini q ngerti KIMIA, padahal dulu kimia SMA q cuman 8, Pak!)

14. Dalam Alkitab tidak pernah menyebut-nyebut soal nasi. Para Nabi juga tidak makan nasi. Lagipula nasi bukan sesuatu yang dianjurkan agama sehingga keabsahan penggunaannya pun belum dapat dipastikan.

15. Nasi DIMASAK dalam suhu lebih dari100 derajat Celsius. Itu panas yang cukup untuk bunuh orang.

serius amat bacanya !!!!!!!!!!!!!!

huaauhuahuahuaua......

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Mauw tauw rahasia kentut..???^_^

Buang angin, kentut, atau yang dalam istilah ilmiahnya disebutflatulence, flatulency, flatus, adalah ciptaan Allah, yang sudah pasti bukanlah peristiwa biasa. Anda dapat membuktikannya dengan mencari tulisan ilmiah seputar kentut di mesin pencari pustaka ilmiah di internet, misalnya di scholar.google. com dengan mengetikkan kata kunci flatulence intestine. Yang akan Anda dapatkan adalah tidak kurang dari 4800 rujukan ilmiah yang membahas atau mengandung rujukan tentangkentut dari tahun 2000 hingga sekarang!
Tidak sampai di situ saja. Rujukan ilmiah tersebut diterbitkan olehberagam jurnal ilmiah dari berbagai disiplin, dari ilmu gizi, kedokteran, hingga kesehatan dan pengobatan. Sudah pasti ini bermakna pula peneliti dan para ilmuwan yang berkecimpung di bidang penelitian kentut juga berasal dari beragam disiplin ilmu.
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Fisika di balik kentut
Keluarnya angin dari anus itu sendiri juga merupakan peristiwa yang memperlihatkan kebesaran Sang Pencipta. Di dalam saluran pencernaan makanan, terutama di dalam usus, terdapat berbagai zat berwujud padat, cair, gas, serta dengan tingkat kepadatan dan keenceran beragam. Hebatnya, angin kentut yang berbentuk gas bisa mengalir ke arah bawah, dan menerobos cairan dan padatan di dalam usus, untuk kemudian keluarmeninggalkan dubur.
Ini bukan peristiwa yang tidak aneh. Mengapa? Anda bisa mencoba mencampur zat padat, zat cair dan gas di dalam tabung atau gelas yang memiliki katup pengeluaran di bagian dasarnya. Lalu Anda berikan tekanan pada campuran tersebut, bisakah Anda memastikan bahwa gas tersebut bergerak ke arah bawah dan bahwa yang keluar dari katup pengeluaran tersebut hanya gas saja?
Biasanya gas atau gelembung udara bergerak menuju ke atas karena lebih ringan, dan sulit mengeluarkan gas tanpa mencegah keluarnya cairan atau padatannya melalui katup tersebut. Tapi peristiwa kentut terjadi melalui cara di luar kebiasaan itu berkat sempurnanya ciptaan Allah pada otot cincin yang membuka dan menutup lubang anus itu.
Otot lingkar pada dubur ini mampu merasakan keberadaan gas kentut dan mengatur pengeluarannya sedemikian rupa sehingga hanya gas saja, dan bukan padatan dan cairan, yang keluar dari anus. Bayangkan seandainya otot ini tidak mampu memilah dan mencegah keluarnya cairan dan padatan dari usus besar kita di saat kita buang angin di tempat terbuka.
Sangat diragukan jika ada alat buatan manusia yang mampu melakukan kerja seperti lubang anus yang luar biasa itu. Otot-otot dan jaringan terkait di seputar anus adalah organ ciptaan Allah yang Mahahebat, yang mampu melakukan kerja pelepasan gas kentut sekitar 10 kali per hari dengan sempurna, selama puluhan tahun usia manusia.
Kimia gas kentut
Di dalam usus besar, sekitar 70% gas berasal dari udara yang tertelan melalui mulut kita. Ketika makan, orang pada saat yang sama menelan ke dalam perutnya sekitar 2-3 cc udara. Misalnya, jika kita makan apel, udara tambahan yang ikut tertelan ke dalam tubuh kita adalah sekitar 20 cc. Begitu pula dengan minum. Kurang lebih 17 cc udara memasuki saluran pencernaan makanan saat seseorang meminum 10 cc air.
Gas selebihnya yang terdapat pada usus adalah gas asli buatan “dalam negeri”, alias muncul dari dalam usus itu sendiri dan bukan dari luar tubuh. Gas ini dihasilkan melalui aktifitas penguraian oleh mikroba di dalam saluran pencernaan kita.
Bagaimana gas-gas itu terbentuk? Tidak semua makanan yang kita telan dicerna sempurna dan diserap keseluruhannya di dalam usus halus. Sebagian makanan berserat atau zat tepung yang tak tercerna sempurna ini, misalnya kacang-kacangan, kemudian dirombak atau diuraikan oleh mikroba yang menghuni saluran pencernaan kita. Penguraian ini di antaranya menghasilkan zat-zat berwujud gas seperti metana dan hidrogen sulfida, serta gas-gas yang mengandung unsur belerang lainnya.
Gas kentut adalah campuran beragam gas. Kentut sebagian besarnya terdiri atas gas oksigen, nitrogen, karbon dioksida dan metana yang kesemuanya ini bukan penyebab bau tidak sedap. Yang memunculkan aroma tidak sedap pada kentut adalah gas-gas yang mengandung belerang. Di antaranya adalah hidrogen sulfida (bau telur busuk), methanethiol (bau sayur membusuk). Namun ada pula dimetil sulfida yang memiliki bau manis.
Kreatif karena kentut
Ternyata kentut memiliki nilai komersial. Sebut saja Josef Pujol,warga Prancis kelahiran Marseilles tahun 1857. Ia memiliki kelebihan mampu dengan sengaja mengendalikan otot-otot perutnya. Dengannya, ia dapat dengan mudah menyedot 2 liter udara ke dalam usus besarnya melalui anus, dan meniupkan kembali ke luar anus. Dengan kata lain, ia mampu membuat “kentut buatan”.
Berbekal bakat ini, ia memasuki dunia pentas hiburan. Sebelum pentas, ia “mencuci usus besarnya” agar tidak menimbulkan bau tak sedap. Suara buang anginnya hanya memiliki 4 tangga nada: do, mi, sol dan do lagi.
Pentas profesionalnya berawal di tahun1887. Karirnya mulai menanjak ketika ia naik panggung di gedung musik Moulin Rouge di Paris pada tahun1892. Dalam pentasnya, terkadang ia memasang selang pada anusnya yang kemudian disambungkan ke berbagai alat musik tiup untuk bermain musik.
Selain sangat terkenal, ia juga mendapatkan penghasilan 20.000 frank per minggu, dua setengah kali lebih banyak dibandingkan artis kondang kala itu, Sarah Bernhardt. Ketenarannya ini bahkan sempat mendorong Raja Belgia datang diam-diam untuk melihat Josef Pujol.
Penyaring kentut
Kini telah tersedia produk di pasaran yang berfungsi menghilangkan bau kentut yang tidak sedap. FLAT-D adalah salah satu nama produk berbentuk kain persegi panjang, yang mudah dilipat dan dibawa. Kain ini digunakan dengan cara menghamparkan di atas kursi kerja, atau kursi kantor. Selain dapat dicuci dan digunakan ulang, kain ini mengandung karbon teraktifasi.
Ketika seseorang buang angin dalam keadaan duduk di atas kursi kerja yang tertutup kain FLAT-D, kain ajaib ini menyerap aroma tidak sedap kentut tersebut. Penyaring kentut ini diproduksi pula dalam bentuk pembalut yang dapat direkatkan pada celana dalam, sehingga lebih praktis.
Selain FLAT-D, ada pula produk serupa bernama Under-Ease yangdikeluarkan oleh perusahaan Under-Tec Corp. Pakaian dalam yang sudah mendapatkan hak paten ini adalah hasil kerja keras penelitian pasangan suami istri Buck and Arlene Weimer. Produk mereka sempat menjadi buah bibir di media massa AS di awal tahun 2000-an.
Demikianlah, tulisan singkat ini tidak mungkin dapat menampung seluruh hasil-hasil temuan ilmiah dan inovasi teknologi seputar kentut, gas yang seringkali dicemooh orang. Namun, sebagai salah satu ciptaan Allah, ternyata kentut membuktikan bahwa tiada sesuatu yang Allah ciptakan, melainkan menjadi bukti keagungan dan keluasan ilmu Allah, Pencipta tanpa tara. Dialah yang menciptakan segala sesuatu dengan tujuan yang benar, sebagaimana firman-Nya, yang artinya:
(yaitu) orang-orang yang mengingat ALLAH sambil berdiri atau duduk atau dalam keadaan berbaring dan mereka memikirkan tentang penCIPTAAN langit dan bumi (seraya berkata): Ya Rabb kami, tiadalah Engkau menciptakan ini dengan SIA-SIA Maha Suci Engkau, maka peliharalah kami dari siksa neraka. (QS. Ali `Imran, 3:191)
(Penulis: Abdul Halim – Februari 2008)
Sumber: www.mitrafm. com

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Bahaya Radiasi Ponsel..!!!!

Tengoklah iklan tarif telepon seluler dari berbagai perusahaan. Tawaran mereka benar-benar menggiurkan: gratis bicara sepanjang hari, bebas menelepon semaumu atau ngobrol sampai dower, dan banyak iming-iming lainnya. Gara-gara tarif murah, orang dengan mudah berhalo-halo tanpa batas. Pulsa mungkin saja "aman", namun kesehatan bisa terancam.
Pembantu rumah tangga atau buruh bangunan pun mengantongi telepon. Di Indonesia, menurut Budi Putra, pengamat dan pengelola blog teknologi komunikasi, pengguna telepon seluler kini mencapai 115 juta orang, sekitar separuh dari jumlah penduduk Indonesia. Menurut data Organisasi Kesehatan Dunia (WHO), pengguna handphone di seluruh jagat mencapai tiga miliar orang. Dua kali lipat dibandingkan data 2005.Di balik semua kemudahan berkomunikasi, telepon genggam memunculkan kekhawatiran, terutama bagi kesehatan. Pemicunya, penelitian Vini Gautam Khurana, ahli bedah saraf dari Universitas Nasional Australia, Canberra, yang dipublikasikan pada akhir Maret lalu. Selama 15 bulan, Khurana menelaah lebih dari 100 penelitian yang telah dilakukan berbagai lembaga, tentang keselamatan penggunaan telepon seluler. Hasil penelitian itulah yang menimbulkan gelombang reaksi besar hingga sekarang, karena Khurana menyatakan penggunaan telepon seluler akan memicu epidemi tumor otak, yang akan membunuh lebih banyak orang ketimbang rokok. Menurut riset profesor peraih 14 penghargaan medis ini, penggunaan telepon seluler--langsung dari handset--lebih dari 10 tahun akan menggandakan risiko terkena kanker otak.

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Tidak hanya Khurana yang punya perhatian besar terhadap dampak buruk penggunaan telepon seluler, lembaga penelitian bergengsi lain juga demikian. Pada Juni lalu Mobile Telecommunications and Health Research di Inggris, bekerja sama dengan Imperial College, London, mengadakan penelitian besar-besaran tentang apakah telepon genggam bisa memicu gejala kanker otak, alzheimer, dan parkinson. Penelitian yang didanai pemerintah Inggris dan sejumlah perusahaan seluler ini akan "membuntuti" 90 ribu orang responden selama setahun. Lalu mengevaluasi dampak kesehatannya. Menjawab kekhawatiran dunia akan bahaya telepon genggam, Organisasi Kesehatan Dunia juga telah meluncurkan Health Evidence Network. Ini merupakan layanan informasi Organisasi Kesehatan Dunia Kantor Regional Eropa, sebagai referensi bagi pengambil keputusan di bidang medis. Ternyata, menurut organisasi kesehatan di bawah Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa ini, bukti bahwa radiasi telepon seluler dapat memicu tumor otak, tumor pada sel saraf pendengaran, tumor kelenjar saliva, leukemia dan limfoma, masih "lemah dan tak bisa disimpulkan". Alasannya, orang hanya memakai telepon dalam waktu terbatas--bukan sepanjang hari secara terus-menerus. Meski begitu, lembar fakta Organisasi Kesehatan Dunia menyebutkan, tidak ada bukti bukan berarti tidak ada efek. Harus ada penelitian lanjutan yang lebih spesifik untuk tiap-tiap kasus. Untuk itu, pada Oktober 2009, organisasi ini akan mengeluarkan rekomendasi resmi tentang aturan menggunakan telepon genggam, tentu saja berdasar penelitian yang lebih kredibel. Khurana sendiri menyarankan untuk membuat penelitian dampak penggunaan telepon seluler dalam jangka 10-15 tahun, agar menghasilkan "kajian ilmiah yang solid".Belum adanya kepastian tentang tingkat bahaya penggunaan telepon seluler itulah yang menjadi masalah. Para dokter di Indonesia menyatakan, meski pemakaian telepon seluler meningkat belakangan ini, belum ada penelitian di Tanah Air tentang bahayanya bagi kesehatan. Menurut Silvia F. Lumempouw, dari berbagai kasus penyakit saraf yang ia tangani--termasuk alzheimer dan neuroma akustik--belum pernah ada yang terkait langsung dengan penggunaan telepon genggam. Spesialis saraf dari Rumah Sakit Cipto Mangunkusumo dan Rumah Sakit Dharma Nugraha ini menyatakan, radiasi dari seluler sebetulnya tak terlalu berbahaya jika dibandingkan dengan sumber radiasi lain seperti rontgen atau CT-scan. Para pekerja medis yang setiap hari berurusan dengan radiasi pun aman, apalagi "cuma" telepon. Silvia juga mengingatkan, sebetulnya kita juga dikelilingi radiasi dari televisi, radio, komputer, dan berbagai peranti lain. Karena itu, ia menyarankan, kita juga wajib mewaspadai gejala akibat penggunaan handphone yang berlebihan. "Teknologi kan diciptakan untuk memudahkan, bukan untuk membuat sakit," katanya.Pengurus Perhimpunan Dokter Spesialis Saraf Indonesia (Perdossi) ini membandingkan telepon genggam dengan obat. Jika sebelum dipasarkan, obat harus sukses melalui serangkaian proses (dicoba di hewan, lalu di manusia, kemudian di orang sakit), alat-alat teknologi pun seharusnya begitu. "Mesti ada aturan dari sisi kesehatan, sebelum produk itu dipasarkan," kata Silvia. Jangan hanya berorientasi pada kecanggihan tapi tak mementingkan sisi medis. Himawan W.H. juga menyatakan hal senada. Dokter spesialis telinga, hidung, dan tenggorokan di jaringan Rumah Sakit Mitra Internasional ini menyebut semua radiasi pada dasarnya berbahaya. Namun radiasi dari telepon genggam relatif kecil.Selain dari telepon genggam, potensi radiasi di sekitar kita yang patut diwaspadai adalah penggunaan microwave, telepon tanpa kabel, paparan sinar matahari langsung, dan penerbangan. Laporan United States Federal Aviation Administration menyatakan, mereka yang terbang secara rutin terekspos radiasi setara dengan 170 kali dipindai sinar X. Karena selalu mengarungi udara itulah, pramugari dan pilot lebih rentan terkena kanker. (Majalah Tempo)

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Wow...Kulit Semangka Bisa Jadi Obat...Keyen g tuh??!!

Hasil penelitian terbaru, seperti dikutip kantor berita Arab Saudi (SPA) Minggu (22/7), menyebutkan bahwa kulit semangka juga dapat menyembuhkan sedikitnya lima macam penyakit.
Penyakit-penyakit yang bisa disembuhkan oleh kulit semangka adalah darah tinggi kronis, radang ginjal, sulit buang air kecil, sulit buang air besar kronis dan penyakit dropsy (sakit gembur-gembur).

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Hasil penelitian yang dilakukan Lembaga Medis Biologi yang disiarkan oleh Majalah Riset Medis Yordania itu juga memberikan jaminan bagi pasien dapat sembuh setelah melakukan pengobatan selama sebulan dengan teratur.
Untuk darah tinggi disarankan untuk mengeringkan kulit semangka lalu ditumbuk halus. Setiap hari diambil 20 gram dari kulit yang telah ditumbuk itu dan dimasak dengan air secukupnya. Pasien yang meminumnya secara teratur selama sebulan, penyakit darah tingginya bisa tersembuhkan secara total.Sedangkan empat penyakit lainnya disarankan untuk memotong kecil kulit semangka tersebut lalu dimasak sehingga menjadi adonan lalu disimpan di dalam botol kaca yang ditutup rapi.
Pasien penderita radang ginjal, sulit buang air kecil, sulit buang air besar kronis dan penyakit gembur-gembur, dianjurkan memakan adonan tersebut satu sendok makan sehari sebelum sarapan selama sebulan.“Apabila pasien mengikuti petunjuk tersebut dengan teratur paling sedikit selama sebulan penuh, maka penyakit-penyakit tersebut akan sembuh total dengan izin Allah,” demikian hasil penelitian tersebut.
Dengan adanya hasil penelitian terbaru tersebut, warga Arab yang dikenal memang doyan makan buah semangka, kemungkinan tidak akan membuang kulitnya ke sampah, tapi akan disimpan menjadi bahan obat.(*) @Antara

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Virus Kills Cancer Stem Cells

Breast Cancer Cell

National Cancer Institute

Who would have thought that a common virus could become a potent weapon in the fight against breast cancer. Researchers have discovered that the human reovirus, a virus that does not cause disease in humans, effectively destroys breast cancer cells and cancer stem cells. This is a key discovery as cancer stem cells are very difficult to kill.

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Cancer researcher Dr. Patrick Lee explains, "Cancer stem cells are essentially mother cells. They continuously produce new cancer cells, aggressively forming tumours even when there are only a few of them. You can kill all the regular cancer cells in a tumour, but as long as there are cancer stem cells present, disease will recur.

"An added benefit that human reovirus brings to the battle against cancer is that it also stimulates the immune system to attack cancer cells. Because the human immune system also attacks the reovirus however, the researchers are now focusing on a method to rein in the immune system so that it will attack the cancer cells while leaving the reovirus unharmed.

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Sleep May Help Clear Brain For New Learning

Washington University scientists used genetically modified fruit flies to track the creation of new brain synapses, junctures where two brain cells communicate. They found that two scenarios that give the fruit fly's brain a workout caused new synapses to arise. To their surprise, all of the new synapses originated from a group of 16 cells in the fly brain's internal timekeeping mechanism. The cells are highlighted in the encircled area above. (Credit: Image courtesy of Washington University School of Medicine)

A new theory about sleep's benefits for the brain gets a boost from fruit flies in the journal Science. Researchers at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis found evidence that sleep, already recognized as a promoter of long-term memories, also helps clear room in the brain for new learning.
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The critical question: How many synapses, or junctures where nerve cells communicate with each other, are modified by sleep? Neurologists believe creation of new synapses is one key way the brain encodes memories and learning, but this cannot continue unabated and may be where sleep comes in.
"There are a number of reasons why the brain can't indefinitely add synapses, including the finite spatial constraints of the skull," says senior author Paul Shaw, Ph.D., assistant professor of neurobiology at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis. "We were able to track the creation of new synapses in fruit flies during learning experiences, and to show that sleep pushed that number back down."
Scientists don't yet know how the synapses are eliminated. According to theory, only the less important connections are trimmed back, while connections encoding important memories are maintained.
Many aspects of fly sleep are similar to human sleep; for example, flies and humans deprived of sleep one day will try to make up for the loss by sleeping more the next day. Because the human brain is much more complex, Shaw uses the flies as models for answering questions about sleep and memory.
Sleep is a recognized promoter of learning, but three years ago Shaw turned that association around and revealed that learning increases the need for sleep in the fruit fly. In a 2006 paper in Science, he and his colleagues found that two separate scenarios, each of which gave the fruit fly's brain a workout, increased the need for sleep.
The first scenario was inspired by human research linking an enriched environment to improved memory and other brain functions. Scientists found that flies raised in an enhanced social environment—a test tube full of other flies—slept approximately 2-3 hours longer than flies raised in isolation.
Researchers also gave male fruit flies their first exposure to female fruit flies, but with a catch—the females were either already mated or were actually male flies altered to emit female pheromones. Either fly rebuffed the test fly's attempts to mate. The test flies were then kept in isolation for two days and exposed to receptive female flies. Test flies that remembered their prior failures didn't try to mate again; they also slept more. Researchers concluded that these flies had encoded memories of their prior experience, more directly proving the connection between sleep and new memories.

Scientists repeated these tests for the new study, but this time they used flies genetically altered to make it possible to track the development of new synapses, the junctures at which brain cells communicate.
"The biggest surprise was that out of 200,000 fly brain cells, only 16 were required for the formation of new memories, " says first author Jeffrey Donlea, a graduate student. "These sixteen are lateral ventral neurons, which are part of the circadian circuitry that let the fly brain perform certain behaviors at particular times of day."
When flies slept, the number of new synapses formed during social enrichment decreased. When researchers deprived them of their sleep, the decline did not occur.
Donlea identified three genes essential to the links between learning and increased need for sleep: rutabaga, period and blistered. Flies lacking any of those genes did not have increased need for sleep after social enrichment or the mating test.
Blistered is the fruit fly equivalent to a human gene known as serum response factor (SRF). Scientists have previously linked SRF to plasticity, a term for brain change that includes both learning and memory and the general ability of the brain to rewire itself to adapt to injury or changing needs.
The new study shows that SRF could offer an important advantage for scientists hoping to study plasticity: unlike other genes connected to plasticity, it's not also associated with cell survival.
"That's going to be very helpful to our efforts to study plasticity, because it removes a large confounding factor," says co-author Naren Ramanan, Ph.D., assistant professor of neurobiology. "We can alter SRF activity and not have to worry about whether the resulting changes in brain function come from changes in plasticity or from dying cells."
Shaw plans further investigations of the connections between memory and sleep, including the question of how increased synapses induce the need for sleep.
"Right now a lot of people are worried about their jobs and the economy, and some are no doubt losing sleep over these concerns," Shaw says. "But these data suggest the best thing you can do to make sure you stay sharp and increase your chances of keeping your job is to make getting enough sleep a top priority."

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New Use for Tobacco

We all know how harmful tobacco products can be, so it seems a little strange to think that tobacco could possibly have medicinal benefits. Researchers are creating genetically modified tobacco plants that are able to produce anti-inflammatory proteins. These proteins could then be used to treat several diseases including diabetes.
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Lead scientist Mario Pezzotti states, "Transgenic plants are attractive systems for the production of therapeutic proteins because they offer the possibility of large scale production at low cost, and they have low maintenance requirements. The fact that they can be eaten, which delivers the drug where it is needed, thus avoiding lengthy purification procedures, is another plus compared with traditional drug synthesis." The next step in the study is to see how effective the plants are by feeding them to mice with auto-immune diseases.
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New Use for Tobacco

We all know how harmful tobacco products can be, so it seems a little strange to think that tobacco could possibly have medicinal benefits. Researchers are creating genetically modified tobacco plants that are able to produce anti-inflammatory proteins. These proteins could then be used to treat several diseases including diabetes.

...

Lead scientist Mario Pezzotti states, "Transgenic plants are attractive systems for the production of therapeutic proteins because they offer the possibility of large scale production at low cost, and they have low maintenance requirements. The fact that they can be eaten, which delivers the drug where it is needed, thus avoiding lengthy purification procedures, is another plus compared with traditional drug synthesis." The next step in the study is to see how effective the plants are by feeding them to mice with auto-immune diseases.

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Why Lizards Shed Their Tail

Aegean wall lizardCredit: Johannes Foufopoulos

Did you know that some lizards have the ability to quickly shed their tail when under attack from a predator? Researchers had assumed that predator-prey relationships were a key factor in determining this ability in lizards. A deeper look however has given insight into why some lizards have this ability while others don't. The answer lies in the type of predator, specifically those that kill their prey with venom.
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In a study of lizards in Greece and the Aegean islands, researchers noticed that lizards with the quick tail-shedding ability were located in areas that were also populated by vipers. This ability is advantageous. If the lizard is bitten on its tail, it can shed the tail before the deadly venom is able to reach any vital organs. The lizard can then regrow its tail over time. Lizards that are located in areas where venomous snakes are not around do not have this same ability to quickly shed their tails.

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Cholesterol Crystals and Heart Attacks

Researchers from Michigan State University have discovered that heart attacks can be caused by cholesterol crystals in the blood stream that disrupt plaque found in arteries. Plaque consists of cholesterol, fat, calcium, and other substances that build-up and reduce blood flow. As cholesterol builds on artery walls, it crystallizes and expands. The sharp crystals eventually move into the blood causing damage to arterial they move along. As the body tries to repair itself through the prwalls as ocess of clotting, it can lead to the development of blood clots that completely block blood flow. When this happens, a heart attack occurs.
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Cholesterol CrystalsImage courtesy of Michigan State University

The image to the right shows cholesterol crystals. The protruding elements seen in the different slides are the crystals. Those elements are arising from within the artery wall, causing tearing and damage to the artery. The colors have been added for enhancement and imagery.

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